Illustrations depicting the first six days of creation highlight the Book of Genesis in "Biblia Italica," published in Venice, 1494.
The Library of Congress has organized a special exhibition of 84 rare books from its Lessing J. Rosenwald Collection that are illustrated with woodcuts from the late medieval and early Renaissance period. Titled "A Heavenly Craft: The Woodcut in Early Printed Books." The exhibition explores the development in technique, composition, perspective and coloration of the woodcut as it evolved in Western Europe through examples from German, Italian, French, Spanish and Netherlandish printers, designers and woodcutters. "A Heavenly Craft" was made possible by the generous support of Arthur Ortenberg and Elisabeth Claiborne, the Long Island Community Foundation–Krasnoff Family Fund, Fred Krimendahl and Emilia Saint-Amand, and Mr. and Mrs. Henry J. "Bud" Smith.
The exhibition opened at the Grolier Club in New York City on Dec. 8, 2004, for a two-month run. The final venue for the exhibition is the Bridwell Library at Southern Methodist University in Dallas. A digital version of the exhibition can be viewed on the Library of Congress Web site at www.loc.gov/exhibits/.
![the vision, transmigration and ecstasy of Beatrice as she ascends to paradise is illustrated in a woodcut from the opening of "Paradiso" from Dante's "La Commedia divina" ["The Divine Comedy"], 1491](images/heavenly_3.jpg)
Christ is depicted washing the feet of the apostles in Johann Schönsperger's "Passio domini Jesu Christi," 1490; Albrecht Dürer's magnificent "Saint Michael Fighting the Dragon," ca. 1511; the vision, transmigration and ecstasy of Beatrice as she ascends to paradise is illustrated in a woodcut from the opening of "Paradiso" from Dante's "La Commedia divina" ["The Divine Comedy"], 1491; St. Birgitta bestowes her revelations on a group of monks and nuns in a woodcut from an edition of "Revelationes," 1500
On display near the Library's vellum copy of the Gutenberg Bible—one of three perfect copies on vellum in the world—a new exhibition titled "A Heavenly Craft: The Woodcut in Early Printed Books" allows visitors from around the world to experience the evolution of the woodcut during the late 15th and early 16th centuries. In the 1450s, German printer Johannes Gutenberg (ca. 1400-1468) perfected a standardized system for printing with movable metal type. His invention can be credited for a revolution in the production of books and fostering rapid development in the sciences, arts and religion through the timely transmission of texts.
Although Gutenberg's invention increased the speed at which books were produced, the process of illustrating and illuminating early printed books remained a laborious task executed by hand. The development of the woodcut revolutionized the process by which books were decorated. By the late 1460s, printers found that they could combine woodcut blocks with metal type, and print text and images simultaneously. Use of woodcuts in printed books made it possible to print identical copies of illustrated books, resulting in a powerful explosion of visual information, ideas and knowledge throughout Europe.
Creating a Woodcut
To demonstrate the woodcut-making process, the Library's exhibition features a modern woodblock copied from an illustration of one of the rare books on display (Johann Schönsperger's "Passio domini Jesu Christi," printed in Augsburg in 1491). This woodblock was cut by Margaret Adams Parker, an Alexandria, Va., printmaker whose primary medium is the woodcut. She has a special interest in late medieval graphic arts, and some of her most important works are in the collections of the Library of Congress.
Parker's modern woodcut is made of poplar, a hardwood used by most woodcut artists today. In the 15th century, artists used wood from fruit trees, especially pear trees, because of the strength of the wood's grain. These hardwoods would not split when cut with a knife and could withstand the pressure of the printing press. Hundreds of legible images were produced before a new block had to be cut.
Parker executed the woodcut by transferring a copy of the original image onto the block and cutting away all the wood surrounding the lines, leaving the image in relief. She then inked the lines, placed paper on top of the block, and put the woodblock through the press. She made two woodcut prints from the newly cut woodblock. The first is printed in black ink to demonstrate the transfer of the inked lines of the block to the paper. The second print is hand-colored with watercolor wash to demonstrate how this technique can enhance the print's readability while adding a decorative touch to the page.
Exhibition Highlights
The exhibition examines various national styles and influences. Included are examples from German, Italian, French, Swiss, Spanish and Netherlandish woodcut designs from the mid-1460s to the late 1520s. During these six decades, medieval traditions gave way to the emerging humanistic style of the Renaissance. This can be seen quite clearly in the early examples used to illustrate German and Italian books.
Since the art of printing with movable type was invented by Gutenberg in the city of Mainz, it is no surprise that the earliest woodcuts to appear in printed books are of German origin and reflect what came to be known as the northern European style. The earliest examples of German woodcuts in the exhibition are characterized by thick contour lines that outline the design, along with a great deal of white space. The images contain very little detail, with almost no ornamentation, no sense of perspective and only a single line border containing the central image.
Although simple in compositional format and execution, the content or message of early woodcut designs was usually expressed clearly. A parable from the life of Christ, an Old Testament story, a fable or a sign from the zodiac were subjects that were well-known in the medieval world, and a simple representation of such an image was well understood to a 15th century audience.
The first two pages of "The Master and His Seven Students," a secretarial and letter-writing manual from Florence, 1492, by Christoforo Landino, with woodcuts by Antonio di Bartolommeo Miscomini.
During the latter part of the 15th century, northern European woodcut artists experimented with their designs by adding detail in the form of repetitive parallel lines or shading. This innovation gave the image depth and perspective and can be clearly seen in the way vestments and clothing were delineated. But for the most part, medieval traditions prevailed, and the uniformity of the figures and the one-dimensional image predominated.
This all changed when German artist Albrecht Dürer transformed the woodcut by applying his theories of proportionality and perspective and his understanding of Italian composition format to the woodcut design. By adding detail in the form of varied parallel lines of different thicknesses and lengths, cross hatching, individual facial characteristics and a realistic presentation of the physical nature of man, Dürer transformed medieval woodcut design. His new style not only influenced woodcut design north of the Alps, but it set a benchmark that would challenge designers and cutters throughout Italy and France in the first decade of the 16th century.
A comparison between the image of "Saint Birgitta and Her Acolytes" from the Lubeck edition of "Revelationes" (created by an anonymous woodcut artist and printed in 1492) and the same image rendered by Dürer demonstrates the transition from medieval to Renaissance design. The image from the medieval period depicts St. Birgitta seated on a throne passing copies of her book to nuns and monks stationed at either side of her chair. Christ and the Virgin are set above the saint, floating in a cloud that is rendered like a flowing ribbon in space. The figures in the woodcut are all uniform in design, static in posture, and well-ordered in format, yet are hardly distinguishable from one another in facial and physical characteristics. There is some light shading created by the use of parallel lines, but the image is essentially cut in outline, with its contours and interior lines of a similar thickness and length.
By comparison, a woodcut design of the same image by Dürer, printed in Nuremberg in 1500 for the Koberger edition of the "Revelationes," renders the portrait of "Saint Birgitta and Her Acolytes" as an active, multidimensional representation of the scene.
In Italy, woodcut design began to exhibit highly stylized characteristics in the late 1480s and early 1490s. Having developed from the German model, earlier woodblocks were usually cut in outline with little ornamentation or embellishment, but by the third decade after Gutenberg's invention, Venetian and Florentine styles began to emerge. Innovative compositional formats, the use of color and the emphasis on the human body—all hallmarks of Italian Renaissance art—began to make their way into woodcut design.
Venetian woodcuts of the last decade of the 15th century, like Italian woodcuts in general, are distinguished by a number of characteristics. Venetian woodcuts exhibit a freedom of line that emphasizes the naturalness of the human figure and the ease with which it is set in motion. Some images are more effective in conveying this quality, but the folds of clothing, facial features and expressiveness in the action of the hands are characteristics common to the Venetian cut. In addition, the four-part architectural border that frames the image gives the woodcut a monumental quality, a stylistic choice that comes directly from Venetian paintings of the period.
The Venetian woodcut illustrated here is from the 1491 edition of Dante's "La Commedia divina," printed by Bernardinus Benalius and Matteo Capcasa. It illustrates the beginning of the "Paradiso," the third book of Dante's classic work, and translates into pictorial form his account of Beatrice's vision, transmigration and ecstasy as she ascends from earth to paradise. The woodcut designer composes his image around the contemporary motif of the universe, following the medieval concept of the structure of the world, where the earth is at its center and spheres radiate out in concentric circles.
The success of the woodcut exhibited here lies in the designer's ability to adapt the concept of the medieval worldview to Dante's account of Beatrice's passage to heaven. By depicting Beatrice's passage from earth—through the circles of water, wind and fire, up through the spheres of the seven planets signified by the zodiac signs—and into the realm of the "ethereal sphere"(represented by the stars in the upper right), the artist renders the idea in a manner that was understood by the contemporary viewer. The complex composition, the finely cut lines, the expressive manner in which the characters are rendered and the monumental design of the scene are all part of Venetian style. By the end of the 15th century, classical elements emphasized by the Paduan school of painting were to be found in the Venetian woodcut. Heavy shading and very fine lines were incorporated into the design to provide depth and tone to the image. The Venetian style dominated Italian woodcut design and had significant influence on all emerging woodcut styles in Western Europe throughout the 16th century.
The Florentine woodcut book evolved into two distinct styles from 1490 to 1508. Both these styles were firmly based on the example of Florentine painters. One was a more dramatic style influenced by Botticelli, Filippino Lippi and Donatello. The second style, which emphasized a more epic form, found its inspiration in the work of Ghirlandaio, Filippo Lippi and Verrocchio. In both cases there is an emphasis on vigorously drawn lines, balanced composition, and careful draftsmanship and cutting.
"The Master and his Seven Students" from Christopher Landino's edition of "Formulario di Lettere," printed in Florence by Antonio di Bartolommeo Miscomini in 1492, exemplifies a masterpiece of Florentine style. The subject of the teacher with his students was a common motif used in Italy to illustrate educational or scientific books of the period, much the way portraits of saints were used for religious tracts or images of thinkers at their desks appeared in humanist writings. What distinguishes this rendering of the subject from other contemporary examples is the expressive way in which the teacher and his students are set in motion, all perfectly comfortable in their environment. One student is taking notes, another is reading, four are paying close attention to the teacher and one is entering the room. The teacher is poised to make his point and his eyes are directed at the students. His arm is raised, his finger is pointed, and in the next moment he will utter the pearls of wisdom his students have been waiting to hear. This dramatic scene is captured by an artist whose consummate skill at drawing and composition is perfectly matched by a woodcutter who is capable of creating fine line cuts that translate expression and motion in a natural and convincing manner. This is the essence of the best of the Florentine woodcut.
As one looks more closely at the woodcut, other Florentine characteristics emerge, including the use of a border to frame the event. In this case, a thin black border decorated with a ribbon pattern frames the woodcut. This is a very common pattern, as are dart, floral or chain borders. Two other characteristics that distinguish Florentine woodcut design are the simple contour lines that elucidate the content of the image and the sensitive physical representation that depicts human expression.
Renaissance style, as it developed in paintings, sculpture, illumination and the woodcut, transformed national styles throughout Europe. French, Swiss, Spanish and Netherlandish style eventually absorbed various elements of German and Italian design, yet the former quickly emerged with many of their own traditions intact. As the 16th century progressed, these distinguishing characteristics ultimately influenced both taste and technique all over Europe as trade and travel opened national borders to the cultural creation of their neighbors.
Rosenwald and Dyson Perrins
The books on display were formerly owned by British collector Charles William Dyson Perrins (1864-1958), heir to the Lea and Perrins fortune, who sold them at auction in 1946 and 1947. The Dyson Perrins sales were among the first important book auctions to take place after World War II and attracted many prominent American book buyers, including Lessing J. Rosenwald (1891-1979). Rosenwald, then retired chairman of Sears, Roebuck and Co. and a noted philanthropist and collector, purchased 84 titles at the sale and was its most important buyer.
Left, benefactor Lessing J. Rosenwald; right, collector Charles William Dyson Perrins
The inspiration for the Library's exhibition of early printed books was the discovery of a set of auction catalogs in the Lessing J. Rosenwald archives. The set is Rosenwald's marked copy of the auction sale of Dyson Perrins' collection of illustrated books. The catalogs were marked in Rosenwald's hand in purple pencil, as was his custom, and contained questions about the condition of the books and bid information. Buyers' names, sale prices and condition reports are noted in the hand of Rosenwald's agent, who previewed the books in London and attended the sale. The catalogs document a significant event in the history of international book collecting and in the formation of Rosenwald's outstanding collection of early illustrated books.
Dyson Perrins had a passion for English porcelain as well as for illuminated manuscripts and books. The noted English collector and philanthropist decided to sell his collection of books, many of which he had owned for nearly 50 years, to save the financially troubled Royal Worcester Porcelain Factory. To avoid bankruptcy after the devastation wrought by the war, the 18th century firm needed capital. The monies raised by the sale of Dyson Perrins' collection of books in 1946 and 1947 stabilized the porcelain manufacturer and saved for the English people one of the few remaining companies that had survived from the early years of Great Britain's industrial revolution.
Rosenwald, like Dyson Perrins, was not only a formidable collector but also an important philanthropist. In 1943 Rosenwald signed the first in a series of deeds of gift that divided his collection of illustrated books and prints between the Library of Congress and the National Gallery of Art. Paul Needham, librarian at the Scheide Library at Princeton University and internationally renowned Gutenberg scholar, called Rosenwald's gift "one of the great acts of cultural philanthropy in the history of the United States." It helped establish the Library of Congress as one of the greatest repositories of woodcut-illustrated books and a center for research on the subject of book illustration.
After Rosenwald's death in 1979, his book collection of 2,653 titles and much of his personal archives and reference library were delivered to the Library
of Congress. Fred Goff, former chief of the Rare Book and Special Collections Division, called the Rosenwald Collection "the jewel in the crown" of the Library of Congress.
"A Heavenly Craft" Exhibition Catalog Available
"A Heavenly Craft: The Woodcut in Early Printed Books" is accompanied by an illustrated catalog of the same title that explores the themes of the exhibition. Along with full descriptions of each item in the exhibition, it includes scholarly essays by noted experts in the field of early printed books, medieval manuscripts and old master prints. The essays are by Paul Needham, Scheide Librarian at Princeton University; Lilian Armstrong, Mildred Lane Kemper Professor of Art at Wellesley College; and Daniela Laube, specialist in old master woodcuts and engravings. The 224-page catalog with 100 illustrations is available for $50 in hardcover and $35 in softcover at major book stores and through the Library of Congress Sales Shop at (888) 682-3557 or www.loc.gov/shop/.
The catalog and an all-day symposium held at the Library on April 21 were supported by generous gifts from the Fellowship American of Bibliophilic Societies (www.fabsbooks.org); Jonathan A. Hill, Ray and Lorraine Perryman, The Berkley Foundation Inc., Donna L. and Robert H. Jackson and The Gladys Krieble Delmas Foundation.
